A globe is a three-dimensional scale model of Earth (terrestrial globe) or other spheroid celestial body such as a planet, star, or moon. It may also refer to a spherical representation of the celestial sphere, showing the apparent positions of the stars and constellations in the sky (celestial globe). The word "globe" comes from the Latin word ''globus'', meaning round mass or sphere.

Terrestrial and planetary

A globe is the only representation of the earth that does not distort either the shape or the size of large features; flat maps are created using a map projection that inevitably introduces an increasing amount of distortion the larger the area that the map shows. A typical scale for a terrestrial globe is roughly 1:40 million.

Sometimes a globe has surface texture showing topography; in these, elevations are exaggerated, otherwise they would be hardly visible. Most modern globes are also imprinted with parallels and meridians so that one can tell the approximate coordinates of a specific place. Globes provide the best view of Earth today.

Celestial

Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated.

A potential issue arises regarding the "handedness" of celestial globes. If the globe is constructed so that the stars are in the positions they actually occupy on the imaginary celestial sphere, then the star field will appear back-to-front on the surface of the globe (all the constellations will appear as their mirror images). This is because the view from Earth, positioned at the centre of the celestial sphere, is of the ''inside'' of the celestial sphere, whereas the celestial globe is viewed from the ''outside''. For this reason, celestial globes may be produced in mirror image, so that at least the constellations appear the "right way round". Some modern celestial globes address this problem by making the surface of the globe transparent. The stars can then be placed in their proper positions and viewed ''through'' the globe, so that the view is of the inside of the celestial sphere, as it is from Earth.

History

The sphericity of the Earth was established by Hellenistic astronomy in the 3rd century BC, and the earliest terrestrial globe appeared from that period. The earliest known example is the one constructed by Crates of Mallus in Cilicia (now Çukurova in modern-day Turkey), in the mid-2nd century BC.

No terrestrial globes from Antiquity or the Middle Ages have survived. An example of a surviving celestial globe is part of a Hellenistic sculpture, called the Farnese Atlas, surviving in a 2nd century AD Roman copy in the Naples Museum, Italy.

Early terrestrial globes depicting the entirety of the Old World were constructed in the Islamic Golden Age. One such example was constructed in the 9th century by Muslim geographers and cartographers working under the Abbasid caliph, Al-Ma'mun. Another example was the terrestrial globe introduced to Beijing by the Persian astronomer, Jamal ad-Din, in 1267.

The oldest surviving terrestrial globe is credited to Martin Behaim in Nuremberg, Germany, in 1492. A facsimile globe showing America was made by Martin Waldseemueller in 1507. Another early globe, the Hunt-Lenox Globe, ca. 1507, is thought to be the source of the phrase "Here be dragons". Another "remarkably modern-looking" terrestrial globe of the Earth was constructed by Taqi al-Din at the Istanbul observatory of Taqi al-Din during the 1570s.

An unusually high proportion of vintage 20th century world globes feature the Australian town of Birdum, which no longer exists but once held an important position at the end of the Northern Australian Railway.

Manufacture

Mass-produced globes are typically covered by a printed paper map. The most common type has long, thin gores (strips) of paper that narrow to a point at the North Pole and the South Pole. Then a small disk is used to paper over the inevitable irregularities at the poles. The more gores there are, the less stretching and crumpling is required to make the paper map fit the sphere. From a geometric point of view, all points on a sphere are equivalent – one could select any arbitrary point on the Earth, and create a paper map that covers the Earth with strips that come together at that point and the antipodal point.

A globe is usually mounted at a 23.5° angle on bearings. In addition to making it easy to use this mounting also represents the angle of the planet in relation to its sun and the spin of the planet. This makes it easy to visualize how days and seasons change.

Notable examples

The Unisphere in Queens, New York, at 120 feet (36.6 m) in diameter, is the world's largest global structure.

Eartha, currently the world's largest rotating globe ( in diameter), at the Delorme headquarters in Yarmouth, Maine The Mapparium, three-story, stained glass globe at the Mary Baker Eddy Library in Boston, which visitors walk through via a glass bridge. The Babson globe in Wellesley, Massachusetts, a globe which originally rotated on its axis and on its base to simulate day and night and the seasons

The giant globe in the lobby of The News Building in New York City.

The Hitler Globe, also known as the Führer globe, was formally named the Columbus Globe for State and Industry Leaders. Two editions existed during Hitler's lifetime, created during the mid-1930s on his orders. (The second edition changed the name of Abyssinia to Italian East Africa). These globes were "enormous" and very costly. According to the New York Times, "the real Columbus globe was nearly the size of a Volkswagen and, at the time, more expensive." Several still exist, including three in Berlin: one at a geographical institute, one at the Märkisches Museum, and another at the Deutsches Historisches Museum. The latter has a Soviet bullet hole through Germany. One of the two in public collections in Munich has an American bullet hole through Germany. There are several in private hands inside and out of Germany. A much smaller version of Hitler's globe was mocked by Charlie Chaplin in ''The Great Dictator'', a film released in 1940.

Gallery

See also

Armillary sphere

Cartography

Dymaxion map

Emery Molyneux

Google Earth

NASA World Wind

Johannes Schöner globe

Virtual globe

References

External links

ppmglobe - generate strips to glue onto a sphere

3D VRML globe

3D Java Globe with coastlines, parallels, meridians, etc.

Category:Map types

az:Qlobus bs:Globus bg:Глобус ca:Globus terraqüi cs:Glóbus da:Globus de:Globus et:Gloobus es:Globo terráqueo eo:Globuso fr:Globe planétaire ga:Cruinneog gl:Globo terráqueo ko:지구본 hy:Գլոբուս hr:Globus (svijet) id:Globe io:Globo it:Globo he:גלובוס ka:გლობუსი lv:Globuss lt:Gaublys ms:Glob nl:Globe ja:地球儀 no:Globus pl:Globus pt:Globo terrestre ru:Глобус scn:Crobbu simple:Globe sk:Glóbus sl:Globus sr:Глобус fi:Karttapallo sv:Jordglob tl:Globo tg:Глобус uk:Глобус zh:地球儀

birthname	Eva Jacqueline Longoria
birth date	March 15, 1975
birth place	Corpus Christi, Texas, U.S.
othername	Eva Longoria Eva Longoria Christopher Eva Longoria Parker
occupation	Actress/Model
yearsactive	2000–present
religion	Roman Catholicism
spouse	Tyler Christopher (2002–2004)Tony Parker (2007–2011) }}

Eva Jacqueline Longoria (born March 15, 1975) is an American actress, best known for portraying Gabrielle Solis on the ABC television series ''Desperate Housewives''. Longoria received a nomination for the 2006 Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Comedy Series for her performance on ''Desperate Housewives''.

Longoria first became famous on television in the soap opera ''The Young and the Restless''. She became nationally recognized in the 2000s after appearing in several high-profile advertising campaigns and numerous men's magazines, reaching #14 in the FHM "Sexiest Women 2008" poll, and having appeared on the cover of various international women's magazines including ''Vogue'', ''Marie Claire'' and ''Harper's Bazaar''.

Early life

Eva Jacqueline Longoria was born in Corpus Christi, Nueces County, Texas, the daughter of Tejano parents, Enrique Longoria, Jr. and Ella Eva Mireles. She was raised Roman Catholic. Longoria is the youngest of four daughters, her sisters being Elizabeth Judina, Emily Jeannette and Esmeralda Josephina. The Longoria family has resided in Texas since before the creation of the United States, predating the English-speaking settlers.

Longoria originally wanted to be a fashion model and sent in photos to a modeling agency but was declined because of her height. Longoria attended Marvin P. Baker Middle School and later Roy Miller High School; she subsequently received her Bachelor of Science degree in kinesiology at nearby Texas A&M University-Kingsville. During this time, she won the title of Miss Corpus Christi, USA in 1998. After completing college, Longoria entered a talent contest that led her to Los Angeles, California; shortly after, she was spotted and signed by a theatrical agent.

Despite working on a farmland that had been handed down to them from past generations, the family often had very little money; Enrique and Ella struggled for many years to give their children a decent upbringing. On ''The Oprah Winfrey Show'' in 2006, Longoria shared with viewers an introspective look into the hardships she faced in her formative years while growing up poor; she took cameras on location to the family farm and showed how spartan their life had been. Longoria admitted that only when she had made it in show business, did things begin to look better for her family financially. In another interview with ''Dateline'''s Stone Phillips, she also revealed the snubbing she had received from her siblings. "I grew up as the ugly duckling. They used to call me 'la prieta fea,' which means 'the ugly dark one,'" Longoria said.

Career

Longoria landed her first television role in 2000, guest-starring in an episode of ''Beverly Hills, 90210''. Another guest appearance in ''General Hospital'' the same year brought her big break on the popular American soap opera ''The Young and the Restless'', in which she played psychotic Isabella Braña Williams from 2001 to 2003. After leaving ''The Young and the Restless'', she was seen on the now-cancelled Dick Wolf revival of ''Dragnet''. Following ''Dragnet'', she starred in two ill-fated productions - ''Señorita Justice'', a poorly received direct-to-video film, and a television film titled ''The Dead Will Tell''.

In 2004, Longoria landed the role as adulteress Gabrielle Solis in the worldwide break-out ABC hit ''Desperate Housewives''. She has never considered her career to have jumped off so suddenly: "I think it’s funny when people say I’m an overnight sensation, because I’ve been working at it for 10 years."

Shortly after her debut on ''Desperate Housewives'', Longoria starred in a poorly received direct-to-video film titled ''Carlita's Secret'', for which she was also co-producer. In 2006, she was rewarded for her performance as Gabrielle Solis in ''Desperate Housewives'' when she was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series - Musical or Comedy along with her co-stars. She was awarded the ALMA Award and named entertainer of the year that year. She also starred opposite Michael Douglas and Kiefer Sutherland in the 2006 thriller ''The Sentinel'', which was her first major role in a theatrical movie. In 2006, she played the character Sylvia in ''Harsh Times'' starring Freddy Rodriguez and Christian Bale.

She has expressed "confusion" over fellow ''Housewives'' actress Nicolette Sheridan's lawsuit against the ''Desperate Housewives'' series creator Marc Cherry.

''People en Español'' listed her among its "Most Beautiful People" for 2003. Longoria continues to be included in lists of Hollywood's Most Beautiful and was listed #1 in ''Maxim'''s Hottest Female Stars of 2005 and 2006, becoming the first woman to top the list in two consecutive years. She was ranked #9 in the magazine's Hot 100 of 2007 list. In honor of ''Maxim's'' 100th issue in 2006, Longoria was featured on a vinyl mesh replica of its January 2005 cover located in a Las Vegas metropolitan area desert.

In January 2007, Longoria was chosen to be the first face of Bebe Sport. She appeared in the Spring/Summer 2007 campaign, photographed by Greg Kadel. The actress also holds model contracts with L'Oréal and Hanes, New York & Co. Longoria also has a contract with Magnum Ice-Cream, and Heineken. She is a part of Microsoft's "I'm A PC" ad campaign, and she and Tony Parker have appeared together in campaigns for London Fog.

Eva Longoria became a spokesperson for L'Oreal Paris in 2005 and has continued to feature in L'Oreal TV commercials and print ads until the year 2010. Eva Longoria stated that she found a “generous spirit” at L’Oreal. She continues to say “L’Oreal Paris wants beauty to be free, without borders or prejudices….Working together was just meant to be.” Based on her earnings within June 1, 2009 to June 1, 2010 Longoria was ranked No. 4 on Forbes ''Prime Time's 10 Top-Earning Women'' with an estimated $12 million. More recently, she was ranked #14 of ''People'''s Most Beautiful 2011.

After ''Desperate Housewives'' Longoria's first project is an independent drama titled ''Long Time Gone'', in which she will play a mistress. Sarah Siegel-Magness, who produced the award-winning 2009 film ''Precious'', will direct the film. Then, ''In Who Gets the Dog'' Longoria will play a woman named Olive who is at war with her ex over who keeps their beloved poodle. Besides starring in the film, she has also signed on as a producer for the comedy. Longoria will also star alongside Brendan Fraser as his wife in ''Four Kings'', a historical drama set during the French and Indian War, which took place from 1754-1763. The drama, directed by Damian Lee, is about a wealthy British man who hopes to create a utopian society with his wife by backing the war between Great Britain and France. And then there is an animated series by Hulu, titled ''Child Support'', in which Longoria will lend her voice to the lead role. Longoria’s character is Marley Wiener—an irresponsible suburban mother who basically improvises her way through parenting.

Business activities

Eva Longoria opened the restaurant Beso (in Spanish: "Kiss") in Hollywood, along with partner and celebrity chef Todd English, in March 2008. The restaurant is located on Hollywood Boulevard and is accompanied by Kiss, a Victorian-themed nightclub above the restaurant. The Hollywood Beso was scheduled to be the focus of a pilot episode for a tentative reality series called ''Beso: Waiting on Fame'' which would air on VH1 in late 2010.

In 2009, Longoria and various investor-partners opened a Beso restaurant, with a nightclub called Eve above it, in the Crystals retail and entertainment district of CityCenter in Las Vegas.

In 2011, the corporation Beso LLC, owner of the Vegas restaurant-and-nighclub venture, with listed assets of about $2.5 million and Eva Longoria as a 32 percent shareholder, filed for Chapter 11 protection, entering bankruptcy proceedings, in order to restructure nearly $5.7 million in debt and other liabilities. Longoria stated, on the occasion, that she's looking "forward to a more pro-active, hands-on approach in the coming years" with her Las Vegas business interests. On 28 July 2011, the U.S. Bankruptcy Court for Nevada, following a request filed by Beso investor Mali Nachum and her husband Ronen, who have been litigating against Longoria and other Beso investors in multiple courts, ordered Eva Longoria to appear in Las Vegas on the 20th of August in order to be examined about the bankrupt restaurant's finances.

Longoria released the fragrance "EVA by Eva Longoria", a "clean citrus-floral eau de parfum", in April 2010. She stated she wanted a fragrance she could wear: "I am allergic to most fragrances. There was nothing I could wear without my eyes watering, my nose starting to itch or sneezing." In the spring of 2011 she launches her signature fragrance, Eva by Eva Longoria, in major department stores.

Her first book, ''Eva's Kitchen: Cooking with Love for Family and Friends'' hit bookstores on April 12, 2011.

Personal life

Relationships

Longoria was married to ''General Hospital'' star Tyler Christopher from 2002 to 2004. She had a brief relationship in mid 2004 with former 'N Sync star J.C. Chasez.

Longoria met Spurs point guard Tony Parker in November 2004. In August 2005, Longoria confirmed she and Parker were dating, and on November 30, 2006, the couple became engaged. They were married in a civil service on Friday, July 6, 2007, at a Paris city hall. It was followed by a full Roman Catholic wedding ceremony at the Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois Church in Paris on Saturday, July 7, 2007.

Their marriage had its first ordeal when French model Alexandra Paressant claimed to have had an affair with Parker. Both Parker and Longoria vehemently denied these allegations through their spokespeople, saying "All high profile couples fall victim to these sorts of things in the course of their relationships. It appears that this is not the first time this woman has used an athlete to gain public notoriety." Parker initiated a $20 million lawsuit against the website that first reported the story, which later issued a full retraction and an apology, stating "X17online.com and X17, Inc. regret having been misled by Ms. Paressant and her representatives and apologize to Mr. Parker for any damage or inconvenience this may have caused him or his wife."

On November 17, 2010, Longoria filed for divorce from Parker in Los Angeles, citing "irreconcilable differences". In the divorce petition, Longoria, who had taken Parker's last name, requested her maiden name be restored. She also sought spousal support from Parker. The couple had a prenuptial agreement that was signed in June 2007, the month before their wedding, and amended two years later in June 2009. The same day as the divorce filing, Longoria confirmed to her friend Mario Lopez, host of ''Extra'', that she had discovered hundreds of text messages from another woman on her husband's phone. ''Extra'' identified the other woman as Erin Barry, the former wife of Brent Barry, Parker's former teammate, and revealed that the Barrys were also in the process of divorcing. Lopez further stated that Longoria believed Parker had cheated on her earlier in the marriage with another woman, with whom he had kept in touch via Facebook. Lopez said, "Eva wants everyone to know, she's devastated by the rumors of Tony's infidelity. She loved her husband and is heartbroken about their split...But she's strong." In light of the divorce, Longoria cancelled her scheduled appearance at the 2010 American Music Awards. On November 19, 2010, Parker filed for divorce from Longoria in Bexar County, Texas on the grounds of "discord or conflict of personalities", thus establishing a legal battle over where the divorce case would be heard. Unlike Longoria's divorce petition, Parker's did not mention a prenuptial agreement and claimed that the parties would "enter into an agreement for the division of their estate". The divorce was finalized in Texas on January 28, 2011, the same day Longoria's lawyer filed papers to dismiss her Los Angeles petition.

Ancestry

According to research done by Professor Henry Louis Gates, Jr., of Harvard University, in 2010 for the PBS series ''Faces of America'', Longoria's Spanish ancestry can be traced back to her ninth great-grandfather, Lorenzo Suarez de Longoria (b. Oviedo, 1592), who emigrated to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which became modern-day Mexico, in 1603, and whose family originated from a small village called Llongoria, Belmonte de Miranda, Asturias, Spain. Longoria is the Spanish spelling of the surname. Through the generations, Longoria's ancestors moved north to the modern US-Mexico border. In 1767, her 7th great-grandfather received almost of land along the Rio Grande in a land grant from the King of Spain. This land stayed in the family for over a century, enduring through the influx of Anglo settlers in the aftermath of the Mexican-American War and American Civil War.

Her DNA test results were: 70% European, 27% Asian/Indigenous, and 3% African. Specifically, her indigenous American ancestry is Mayan. After a computer compared the DNA results of Gates’s dozen guests, test showed that she is genetically related to cellist Yo-Yo Ma, who is of Chinese heritage. Gates hopes that stories like Longoria's "will help change our sense of the history of the United States. It wasn't an Anglo-WASP history. It was much more complex than that."

Philanthropy

In 2006, Longoria founded Eva's Heroes, a charity which helps developmentally disabled children. She is the national spokesperson for PADRES Contra El Cancer. She signed shoes for the Spirit of Women Red Shoe Celebrity Auction. Longoria also supports the Clothes Off Our Back Foundation, OmniPeace, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, the National Stroke Association, Project HOME and St. Jude Children's Research Hospital. Longoria is an executive producer of Shine Global Inc.'s documentary The Harvest (documentary) which is focused on the 500,000 child migrant farm workers in the U.S. and promote awareness and support to enact the Children's Act for Responsible Employment (CARE Act).

Longoria was named Philanthropist of the year by the Hollywood Reporter for 'her commitment to Latino causes and giving back to the community. She appeared on Fort Boyard in 2009, making over €20,000 for the Make-A-Wish Foundation.

In 2009, Longoria enrolled in a Master's program in Chicano Studies and Political Science at Cal State University, Northridge. According to Eva, "because of my involvement with the NCLR and my charity work, I really wanted a better, more authentic understanding of what my community has gone through so I can help create change."

In September 2009, Longoria was appointed to a bi-partisan commission issued with the task of determining the feasibility of the creation of a National Museum of the American Latino.

Filmography

+Films
! Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
2003	''Snitch'd''	Gabby	direct-to-video
2004	''Señorita Justice''	Det. Roselyn Martinez	direct-to-video
2004	''The Dead Will Tell''	Jeanie	Television film
2004	''Carlita's Secret''	Carlita / Lexus	direct-to-video
2005	''Harsh Times''	Sylvia
2006		Jill Marum
2007		Consuela
2008	''Over Her Dead Body''	Katherine "Kate" Spencer
2008	''Lower Learning''	Rebecca Seabrook
2009	''Foodfight''	Lady X	Unreleased
2010	''Days of Grace''	Unknown	Post-production
2010	''Without Men''	Rosalba	Post-production
2011		Tulita	Post production

+Television
! Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
2000	''Beverly Hills, 90210''	Flight Attendant #3	"I Will Be Your Father Figure" (Season 10, episode 19)
2000	''General Hospital''	Brenda Barrett Lookalike	"Episode dated 25 September 2000" (uncredited)
2001–2003	''The Young and the Restless''	Isabella Braña Williams	"Episode #1.7136" "Episode #1.7142" "Episode #1.7149" "Episode #1.7261"
2003–2004	''Dragnet''	Det. Gloria Duran	"Daddy's Girl" (Season 2, episode 1) "Coyote" (Season 2, episode 2) "17 in 6" (Season 2, episode 3) "The Magic Bullet" (Season 2, episode 4) "Slice of Life" (Season 2, episode 5) "Abduction" (Season 2, episode 6) "Frame of Mind" (Season 2, episode 7) "Retribution" (Season 2, episode 8) "Riddance" (Season 2, episode 9) "Killing Fields" (Season 2, episode 10)
2004–2012	''Desperate Housewives''	Gabrielle Solis	Main role
2006	''George Lopez''	Brooke	"George Vows to Make Some Matri-Money" (Season 5, episode 19)
2008	''Childrens Hospital''	The New Chief	"Episode #1.10" (Season 2, episode 10)

Awards and nominations

{|class="wikitable" |- ! Year ! Result ! Award ! Category ! Film or series |- | 2002 | | rowspan=2 |ALMA Awards | Outstanding Actress in a Daytime Drama | ''The Young and the Restless'' |- | 2006 | | Person of the Year | |- | 2007 | | Bambi Award | TV Series International | ''Desperate Housewives'' |- | 2005 | | DVD Exclusive Awards | Best Actress (in a DVD Premiere Movie) | ''Carlita's Secret'' |- | 2006 | | Golden Globe Award | Best Performance by an Actress in a Television Series - Musical or Comedy | ''Desperate Housewives'' |- | 2005 | | rowspan=2 | | Best Actress - Television | ''Desperate Housewives'' |- | 2007 | | Best Actress - Television | ''Desperate Housewives'' |- |2007 | | People's Choice Awards | Favorite Female TV Star | Desperate Housewives |- |2005 | | rowspan=5 |Screen Actors Guild Awards | Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series | ''Desperate Housewives'' (Shared with cast) |- | 2006 | | Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series | ''Desperate Housewives'' (Shared with cast) |- | 2007 | | Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series | ''Desperate Housewives'' (Shared with cast) |- |2008 | | Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series | ''Desperate Housewives'' (Shared with cast) |- |2009 | | Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series | ''Desperate Housewives'' (Shared with cast) |- | rowspan=2 | 2005 | | rowspan=5 | Teen Choice Awards | Choice TV Actress: Comedy | ''Desperate Housewives'' |- | | Choice TV Breakout Performance - Female | ''Desperate Housewives'' |- |2006 | | TV - Choice Actress: Comedy | ''Desperate Housewives'' |- |2007 | | TV - Choice Actress: Comedy | ''Desperate Housewives'' |- |2010 | | Choice Female Red Carpet Icon | '' Herself'' |- |}

References

External links

Category:1975 births Category:People from Chino Hills, California Category:Living people Category:American film actors Category:American television actors Category:American soap opera actors Category:American beauty pageant winners Category:Hispanic and Latino American actors Category:American female models Category:American people of Mexican descent Category:American people of Spanish descent Category:American people of Maya descent Category:American Roman Catholics Category:People from Corpus Christi, Texas Category:People from San Antonio, Texas Category:Actors from Texas Category:21st-century actors Category:Texas A&M University–Kingsville alumni Category:Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners

ar:إيفا لانغوريا an:Eva Longoria bn:ইভা লঙ্গোরিয়া bg:Ева Лонгория cs:Eva Longoria cy:Eva Longoria da:Eva Longoria de:Eva Longoria et:Eva Longoria es:Eva Longoria eo:Eva Longoria eu:Eva Longoria fa:اوا لونگوریا fr:Eva Longoria ko:에바 롱고리아 hr:Eva Longoria id:Eva Longoria is:Eva Longoria Parker it:Eva Longoria he:אווה לונגוריה ka:ევა ლონგორია csb:Eva Longoria sw:Eva Longoria la:Eva Longoria Parker lv:Eva Longorija lt:Eva Longoria Parker hu:Eva Longoria mk:Ева Лонгорија ms:Eva Longoria nl:Eva Longoria ja:エヴァ・ロンゴリア・パーカー no:Eva Longoria pl:Eva Longoria pt:Eva Longoria ro:Eva Longoria ru:Лонгория, Ева simple:Eva Longoria Parker sl:Eva Longoria Parker sr:Ева Лонгорија fi:Eva Longoria sv:Eva Longoria te:ఈవా లంగోరియా th:อีวา ลองโกเรีย tr:Eva Longoria uk:Єва Лонгорія vi:Eva Longoria zh:伊娃·朗歌莉亞

name	Lea Michele
birth name	Lea Michele Sarfati
birth date	August 29, 1986
birth place	Bronx, New York, U.S.
occupation	Actress, singer
years active	1995–present
website	}}

Lea Michele Sarfati (born August 29, 1986), known professionally as Lea Michele, is an American actress and singer. Michele began working professionally as a child actress on Broadway in productions such as ''Ragtime'' and ''Les Misérables''. She originated the role of Wendla in the musical ''Spring Awakening'' and currently plays Rachel Berry in the Fox television series ''Glee''. Michele performs in the soprano range.

Early life

Michele was born in the Bronx, New York City, the daughter of Edith, a nurse, and Marc Sarfati, a delicatessen owner. Her mother is Italian American and Roman Catholic, while her father is a Spanish-Sephardic Jew. Michele was raised around "both" of her parents' religions. She grew up in New York City and Tenafly, New Jersey. She attended Rockland Country Day School for elementary school in New York and then Tenafly High School. Michele was home schooled one year while working in Toronto, Ontario on ''Ragtime''. She attended Stagedoor Manor in the Catskills, a center for performing arts training. She was then later accepted to the Tisch School of the Arts at New York University, but opted instead to continue working professionally on the stage.

Career

At eight years old, Michele went with a friend named Angela Hind to an open call for a musical. She decided on a whim she wanted to try out. She was offered the part and made her debut on Broadway in 1995 as a replacement in the role of Young Cosette in the New York City production of ''Les Misérables''. This was followed by her performance of the role of Tateh's daughter, the Little Girl, in the 1998 original Broadway cast of ''Ragtime''. In 2004, Michele played Shprintze and Chava in the Broadway revival of the musical ''Fiddler on the Roof''. She also sang on the 2003 Broadway revival cast recording of ''Fiddler on the Roof''.

She played the role of Wendla in Steven Sater and Duncan Sheik's musical version of ''Spring Awakening'', starring in early workshops and Off-Broadway and finally originating the role in the Broadway production in 2006 at the age of 20. Around the same time that the show was set to go to Broadway, she was offered the role of Eponine in the Broadway revival of ''Les Misérables''. She elected to remain with ''Spring Awakening'', which debuted on Broadway in December 2006. She was nominated for a Drama Desk Award for her performance in ''Spring Awakening'' in the category of Outstanding Actress in a Musical.

On May 18, 2008, Michele left ''Spring Awakening'' with co-stars Jonathan Groff. She performed in a reading of Sheik and Sater's new musical, ''Nero'', in July 2008 at Vassar College. From August 8–10, 2008, she portrayed Eponine in the Hollywood Bowl's ''Les Misérables'' concert. She sings on the original Broadway cast recordings of ''Ragtime'' and ''Spring Awakening''.

Michele stars in the Fox television series ''Glee'', where she plays the star singer of a high school glee club, Rachel Berry. The pilot debuted on May 19, 2009. She has won a Screen Actors Guild Award for outstanding ensemble performance and the 2009 Satellite Award for best actress. She also received nominations for an Emmy Award, two nominations for a Golden Globe Award, and Teen Choice Award for her performance in the role. Her cover of The All-American Rejects' "Gives You Hell" reached the top 40 on the US Billboard 200. Michele is featured lead singer in 14 of the top 20 selling ''Glee'' songs as of 2010.

Michele was included in ''TIME'' magazine's 2010 list of the 100 Most Influential People In the World. FHM named her No.7 on 2010 Sexiest Women List, which was the highest ranking for a new entry on the list that year. Michele was named to People Magazine's Best Dressed List of 2010 as "The Newbie" and she was voted "2010 Most Stylish Star" by E! Online. She was ranked 28th on the Maxim 2011 Hot 100. She was number 10 on the Afterellen hot 100 list for 2011.

In 2010, Michele joined the cast of the animated film ''Dorothy of Oz'', voicing the lead role of Dorothy Gale. That same year, she joined the cast of Garry Marshall's romantic comedy ''New Year's Eve''.

Before Super Bowl XLV, on February 6, 2011, she performed "America the Beautiful" with the Air Force Tops In Blue.

Advocacy

Michele is active in participating in charities for gay rights and animal rights, as well as in numerous other charities. In 2008, Michele was a part of the PETA ad campaign "Buck Cruelty! Say No to Horse-Drawn Carriage Rides". In April 2010, Michele appeared in a PSA for PETA speaking out against fur clothing. In September 2010, Michele was honored by PETA for her work for animals.

In support of gay rights, Michele performed at the Human Rights Campaign Dinner in November 2009. In the same month, Michele and Jonathan Groff performed for True Colors Cabaret, a fundraiser in support of gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender equality.

In 2008, Michele performed at a benefit concert, "Alive in the World", to aid the Twin Tower Orphan Fund. Michele has also been active with Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS. For ''Broadway Cares'', Michele has participated in Broadway Barks, Broadway Bares, The Easter Bonnet Competition and The Flea Market and Grand Auction.

In October 2010, Michele performed at a benefit concert for The Painted Turtle, a camp for children with illnesses. The concert celebrated the 35th anniversary of ''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'', with Michele playing the lead role of Janet Weiss for the benefit. In February 2011, she performed for The Grammys' ''MusiCares Benefit'' in Los Angeles CA, proceeds from the event go to help musicians in need.

Credits

Broadway

''Les Misérables'' as Young Cosette (1995–96)

''Ragtime'' as the Little Girl (1998–99)

''Fiddler on the Roof'' as Shprintze and Chava (2004–05)

''Spring Awakening'' as Wendla (2006–08)

Readings/Workshops Burt Bacharach and Steven Satar collaboration (November 2009) ''Nero'' as Octavia (July 2008) Samson and Delilah as Delilah King as Anisette Wuthering Heights as Lucy Hot and Sweet as Naleen (September 2006) ''Spring Awakening'' as Wendla – Roundabout Theatre Company (2000 and June 2001)

Concerts/Events

"Broadway Eastern Bonnet" 2004 benefit performance as Sphrintze (with casts of "Avenue Q" and "Fiddler on the Roof")

''Spring Awakening'' as Wendla – Lincoln Center (February 2005)

Unsung 2007: 'Tis The Season To Be Naughty – Lucille Lortel Theater, New York (December 2007) Alive in the World, benefit concert – as Phoebe (January 2008)

"Broadway Eastern Bonnet" 2008 benefit performance as Wendla (with cast of "Spring Awakening")

Feinstein's (February 2008 and April 2008) Flopz n' cutz Concert with Landon Beard, Joe's Pub (April 2008) ''Les Misérables Concert'' as Eponine at the Hollywood Bowl (August 2008) Upright Cabaret (August 2008) Broadway Chance Style: Up Close & Personal (September 2008) Spring Awakening Holiday Benefit Concert – Joe's Pub (December 2008) Human Rights Campaign Dinner, performer (November 2009). True Colors Benefit with Jonathan Groff (November 2009)

''Glee Live! In Concert!'' as Rachel Berry; Phoenix, Los Angeles, Chicago, New York City (May 2010)

Glee TV Academy Event at the Music Box LA (July 27, 2010)

Rocky Horror Picture Show 35th Anniversary To Benefit The Painted Turtle, as Janet Weiss, LA (October 2010) Super Bowl XLV – as performer ( America the Beautiful) Dallas, Texas (February 2011) MusiCares Person of the Year tribute honoring Barbra Streisand, performer, Los Angeles CA. (February 2011)

''Glee Live! In Concert!'' as Rachel Berry; 22 cites, 40 shows, 4 countries, USA, Canada, England, Ireland (May–July 2011)

Other projects

''Ragtime'' as Little Girl, Toronto Centre for the Arts, Toronto, Ontario (1997)

''The Diary of Anne Frank'' as Anne Frank, Washington D.C. (2005)

Spring Awakening as Wendla, Atlantic Theatre Company, off Broadway (May–August 2006)

Dove commercials as spokesperson (2010) Chevrolet commercial, as Rachel Berry: Glee Super Bowl commercial (February 2011) Nike workout application as spokesperson (2011) HP TouchPad commercial (2011)

Film and television

''Third Watch'' ''Around the Block'' ''Glee (TV series) '''' '''' ''Glee: The 3D Concert Movie'' ''New Year's Eve (film) ''Dorothy of Oz (film)

width="75px"	Year	Title	Role	Notes
1998	''Buster and Chanucey's Silent Night''	voice for various characters
2000	|	Sammi	"Spring Forward Fall Back" (Season 1, episode 19)
2008	|	Herself	Pilot
2009–2012	Glee'' ||	Rachel Berry	44 episodes
2010	|	Sarah (voice)	Elementary School Musical (The Simpsons)>Elementary School Musical" (Season 22, episode 1)
2011	|	Rachel Berry (voice)	"How Do You Solve a Problem Like Roberta?" (Season 2, episode 11)
2011	|	Rachel Berry/Herself
2011	New Year's Eve'' ||	Elise
2012	Dorothy of Oz'' ||	Dorothy Gale

Awards and nominations

! Year	! Award	! Category	! Result	! Notes
	Drama Desk Award
	Favorite Leading Actress in a Broadway Musical
Favorite Female Breakthrough Performance
Favorite Onstage Pair (with Jonathan Groff)
	Grammy Award
	New York Television Festival Award	Best Nonscripted Host or Star
Teen Choice Award	Choice TV Breakout Star		rowspan="8" align="center"
Satellite Award
	Golden Globe Award
	Brink of Fame: Actor
	Choice TV Actress: Comedy
Choice Music: Group (with Glee Cast)
Gold Derby TV Award	Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series
Emmy Award
PETA's 30th Anniversary Gala and Humanitarian Awards Award	Honor
Billboard's Women in Music Triple Threat Award	Honor
Glamour Woman of the Year Award	US TV Actress of the Year
Satellite Award			rowspan="5" align="center"
	Golden Globe Award

Discography

''Ragtime: Original Cast Recording'' (1998)

''Fiddler on the Roof: Revival Cast Recording'' (2004)

''Spring Awakening: Original Cast Recording'' Grammy Award winner – Best Cast Recording (2006)

References

External links

Category:1986 births Category:Actors from New Jersey Category:Actors from New York City Category:American female singers Category:American musical theatre actors Category:American musicians of Italian descent Category:American people of Jewish descent Category:American sopranos Category:American television actors Category:American voice actors Category:Animal rights advocates Category:LGBT rights activists from the United States Category:Living people Category:Musicians from New Jersey Category:Musicians from New York City Category:Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners Category:People from Bergen County, New Jersey Category:People from the Bronx

cs:Lea Michele da:Lea Michele de:Lea Michele es:Lea Michele fr:Lea Michele hr:Lea Michele id:Lea Michele it:Lea Michele he:ליאה מישל hu:Lea Michele nl:Lea Michele ja:リア・ミシェル pl:Lea Michele pt:Lea Michele ru:Мишель, Лиа simple:Lea Michele sh:Lea Michele fi:Lea Michele sv:Lea Michele tr:Lea Michele zh:麗婭·米歇爾

death date	(aged 83)
occupation	Poet, playwright, novelist, essayist, visual artist, statesman, human rights campaigner
movement	Romanticism
influences	François-René de Chateaubriand, Walter Scott, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire, Alphonse de Lamartine, William Shakespeare
influenced	Louis-Honoré Fréchette, Charles Dickens, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Ayn Rand, Irvine Welsh, Albert Camus, Gérard de Nerval, Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, Oscar Wilde, Jean Cocteau, Gustave Flaubert, Jorge Luis Borges, Charles-Marie-René Leconte de Lisle,
signature	Victor Hugo Signature.svg
birth place	Besançon, France
death place	Paris, France }}

Victor-Marie Hugo () (26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French poet, playwright, novelist, essayist, visual artist, statesman, human rights activist and exponent of the Romantic movement in France.

In France, Hugo's literary fame comes first from his poetry but also rests upon his novels and his dramatic achievements. Among many volumes of poetry, ''Les Contemplations'' and ''La Légende des siècles'' stand particularly high in critical esteem, and Hugo is sometimes identified as the greatest French poet. Outside France, his best-known works are the novels ''Les Misérables'' and ''Notre-Dame de Paris'' (also known in English as ''The Hunchback of Notre-Dame'').

Though a committed royalist when he was young, Hugo's views refined as the decades passed; he became a passionate supporter of republicanism, and his work touches upon most of the political and social issues and artistic trends of his time. He is buried in the Panthéon.

Life

Hugo was the third, illegitimate, son of Joseph Léopold Sigisbert Hugo (1774–1828) and Sophie Trébuchet (1772–1821); his brothers were Abel Joseph Hugo (1798–1855) and Eugène Hugo (1800–1837). He was born in 1802 in Besançon (in the region of Franche-Comté) and lived in France for the majority of his life. However, he decided exile as a result of Napoleon III's Coup d'état at the end of 1851. Hugo lived briefly in Brussels (1851) then moved to the Channel Islands, firstly to Jersey (1852–55) and then to the smaller island of Guernsey (1855–1870). Although a general amnesty was proclaimed by Napoleon III in 1859; Hugo stayed in exile, only ending it when Napoleon III was forced from power as a result of the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. Hugo returned again to Guernsey (1872–73), after suffering through the Siege of Paris, before finally returning to France for the remainder of his life.

Hugo's early childhood was marked by great events. Napoléon was proclaimed Emperor two years after Hugo's birth, and the Bourbon Monarchy was restored before his thirteenth birthday. The opposing political and religious views of Hugo's parents reflected the forces that would battle for supremacy in France throughout his life: Hugo's father was an officer who ranked very high in Napoleon's army until he failed in Spain (one of the reasons why his name is not present on the ''Arc de Triomphe''). He was an atheist republican who considered Napoléon a hero; his mother was an extreme Catholic Royalist who is believed to have taken as her lover General Victor Lahorie, executed in 1812 for plotting against Napoléon. Since Hugo's father, Joseph, was an officer, they moved frequently and Hugo learned much from these travels. On his family's journey to Naples, he saw the vast Alpine passes and the snowy peaks, the magnificently blue Mediterranean, and Rome during its festivities. Though he was only nearly six at the time, he remembered the half-year-long trip vividly. They stayed in Naples for a few months and then headed back to Paris.

Sophie followed her husband to posts in Italy (where Léopold served as a governor of a province near Naples) and Spain (where he took charge of three Spanish provinces). Weary of the constant moving required by military life, and at odds with her husband's lack of Catholic beliefs, Sophie separated temporarily from Léopold in 1803 and settled in Paris. Thereafter she dominated Hugo's education and upbringing. As a result, Hugo's early work in poetry and fiction reflect a passionate devotion to both King and Faith. It was only later, during the events leading up to France's 1848 Revolution, that he would begin to rebel against his Catholic Royalist education and instead champion Republicanism and Freethought.

Young Victor fell in love and against his mother's wishes, became secretly engaged to his childhood friend Adèle Foucher (1803–1868).

Unusually close to his mother, he married Adèle (in 1822) only after his mother's death in 1821. They had their first child Léopold in 1823, but the boy died in infancy. Hugo's other children were Léopoldine (28 August 1824), Charles (4 November 1826), François-Victor (28 October 1828) and Adèle (24 August 1830). Hugo published his first novel the following year (''Han d'Islande'', 1823), and his second three years later (''Bug-Jargal'', 1826). Between 1829 and 1840 he would publish five more volumes of poetry (''Les Orientales'', 1829; ''Les Feuilles d'automne'', 1831; ''Les Chants du crépuscule'', 1835; ''Les Voix intérieures'', 1837; and ''Les Rayons et les ombres'', 1840), cementing his reputation as one of the greatest elegiac and lyric poets of his time.

Victor Hugo was devastated when his oldest and favorite daughter, Léopoldine, died at age 19 in 1843, shortly after her marriage. She drowned in the Seine at Villequier, pulled down by her heavy skirts, when a boat overturned. Her young husband Charles Vacquerie also died trying to save her. Victor Hugo was traveling with his mistress at the time in the south of France, and learned about Léopoldine's death from a newspaper as he sat in a cafe. He describes his shock and grief in his poem ''À Villequier'':

''Hélas ! vers le passé tournant un oeil d'envie,'' ''Sans que rien ici-bas puisse m'en consoler,'' ''Je regarde toujours ce moment de ma vie'' ''Où je l'ai vue ouvrir son aile et s'envoler !''

''Je verrai cet instant jusqu'à ce que je meure,'' ''L'instant, pleurs superflus !'' ''Où je criai : L'enfant que j'avais tout à l'heure,'' ''Quoi donc ! je ne l'ai plus !''

''

Alas! turning an envious eye towards the past, unconsolable by anything on earth, I keep looking at that moment of my life when I saw her open her wings and fly away!

I will see that instant until I die, that instant—too much for tears! when I cried out: "The child that I had just now-- what! I don't have her any more!"

He wrote many poems afterwards about his daughter's life and death, and at least one biographer claims he never completely recovered from it. His most famous poem is probably ''Demain, dès l'aube'', in which he describes visiting her grave.

Writings

Like many young writers of his generation, Hugo was profoundly influenced by François-René de Chateaubriand, the famous figure in the literary movement of Romanticism and France's preëminent literary figure during the early 19th century. In his youth, Hugo resolved to be "Chateaubriand or nothing," and his life would come to parallel that of his predecessor in many ways. Like Chateaubriand, Hugo would further the cause of Romanticism, become involved in politics as a champion of Republicanism, and be forced into exile due to his political stances. The precocious passion and eloquence of Hugo's early work brought success and fame at an early age. His first collection of poetry (''Odes et poésies diverses'') was published in 1822, when Hugo was only twenty years old, and earned him a royal pension from Louis XVIII. Though the poems were admired for their spontaneous fervor and fluency, it was the collection that followed four years later in 1826 (''Odes et Ballades'') that revealed Hugo to be a great poet, a natural master of lyric and creative song.

Victor Hugo's first mature work of fiction appeared in 1829, and reflected the acute social conscience that would infuse his later work. ''Le Dernier jour d'un condamné'' (''The Last Day of a Condemned Man'') would have a profound influence on later writers such as Albert Camus, Charles Dickens, and Fyodor Dostoevsky. ''Claude Gueux'', a documentary short story about a real-life murderer who had been executed in France, appeared in 1834, and was later considered by Hugo himself to be a precursor to his great work on social injustice, ''Les Misérables''. But Hugo's first full-length novel would be the enormously successful ''Notre-Dame de Paris'' (''The Hunchback of Notre-Dame''), which was published in 1831 and quickly translated into other languages across Europe. One of the effects of the novel was to shame the City of Paris into restoring the much-neglected Cathedral of Notre Dame, which was attracting thousands of tourists who had read the popular novel. The book also inspired a renewed appreciation for pre-renaissance buildings, which thereafter began to be actively preserved.

Hugo began planning a major novel about social misery and injustice as early as the 1830s, but it would take a full 17 years for ''Les Misérables'', to be realized and finally published in 1862. Hugo was acutely aware of the quality of the novel and publication of the work went to the highest bidder. The Belgian publishing house Lacroix and Verboeckhoven undertook a marketing campaign unusual for the time, issuing press releases about the work a full six months before the launch. It also initially published only the first part of the novel ("Fantine"), which was launched simultaneously in major cities. Installments of the book sold out within hours, and had enormous impact on French society. The critical establishment was generally hostile to the novel; Taine found it insincere, Barbey d'Aurevilly complained of its vulgarity, Flaubert found within it "neither truth nor greatness", the Goncourts lambasted its artificiality, and Baudelaire – despite giving favorable reviews in newspapers – castigated it in private as "tasteless and inept." ''Les Misérables'' proved popular enough with the masses that the issues it highlighted were soon on the agenda of the French National Assembly. Today the novel remains his most enduringly popular work. It is popular worldwide, has been adapted for cinema, television and stage shows.

The shortest correspondence in history is said to have been between Hugo and his publisher Hurst & Blackett in 1862. It is said Hugo was on vacation when ''Les Misérables'' (which is over 1200 pages) was published. He sent a letter containing the single-character message '?' to his publisher, who replied with a single '!'.

Hugo turned away from social/political issues in his next novel, ''Les Travailleurs de la Mer'' (''Toilers of the Sea''), published in 1866. Nonetheless, the book was well received, perhaps due to the previous success of ''Les Misérables''. Dedicated to the channel island of Guernsey where he spent 15 years of exile, Hugo's depiction of Man's battle with the sea and the horrible creatures lurking beneath its depths spawned an unusual fad in Paris: Squids. From squid dishes and exhibitions, to squid hats and parties, Parisians became fascinated by these unusual sea creatures, which at the time were still considered by many to be mythical. The word used in Guernsey to refer to squid (''pieuvre'', also sometimes applied to octopus) was to enter the French language as a result of its use in the book. Hugo returned to political and social issues in his next novel, ''L'Homme Qui Rit'' (''The Man Who Laughs''), which was published in 1869 and painted a critical picture of the aristocracy. However, the novel was not as successful as his previous efforts, and Hugo himself began to comment on the growing distance between himself and literary contemporaries such as Flaubert and Émile Zola, whose realist and naturalist novels were now exceeding the popularity of his own work. His last novel, ''Quatre-vingt-treize'' (''Ninety-Three''), published in 1874, dealt with a subject that Hugo had previously avoided: the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. Though Hugo's popularity was on the decline at the time of its publication, many now consider ''Ninety-Three'' to be a work on par with Hugo's better-known novels.

Political life and exile

After three unsuccessful attempts, Hugo was finally elected to the Académie française in 1841, solidifying his position in the world of French arts and letters. A group of French academiciens, particularly Etienne de Jouy, were fighting against the "romantic evolution" and had managed to delay Victor Hugo's election. Thereafter he became increasingly involved in French politics. He was elevated to the peerage by King Louis-Philippe in 1841 and entered the Higher Chamber as a ''pair de France'', where he spoke against the death penalty and social injustice, and in favour of freedom of the press and self-government for Poland. However, he was also becoming more supportive of the Republican form of government and, following the 1848 Revolution and the formation of the Second Republic, was elected to the Constitutional Assembly and the Legislative Assembly.

When Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III) seized complete power in 1851, establishing an anti-parliamentary constitution, Hugo openly declared him a traitor to France. He relocated to Brussels, then Jersey, and finally settled with his family at Hauteville House in Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, where he would live in exile until 1870.

While in exile, Hugo published his famous political pamphlets against Napoleon III, ''Napoléon le Petit'' and ''Histoire d'un crime''. The pamphlets were banned in France, but nonetheless had a strong impact there. He also composed or published some of his best work during his period in Guernsey, including ''Les Misérables'', and three widely praised collections of poetry (''Les Châtiments'', 1853; ''Les Contemplations'', 1856; and ''La Légende des siècles'', 1859).

He convinced the government of Queen Victoria to spare the lives of six Irish people convicted of terrorist activities and his influence was credited in the removal of the death penalty from the constitutions of Geneva, Portugal and Colombia. He had also pleaded for Benito Juárez to spare the recently captured emperor Maximilian I of Mexico but to no avail. His complete archives (published by Pauvert) show also that he wrote a letter asking the USA, for the sake of their own reputation in the future, to spare John Brown's life, but the letter arrived after Brown was executed.

Although Napoleon III granted an amnesty to all political exiles in 1859, Hugo declined, as it meant he would have to curtail his criticisms of the government. It was only after Napoleon III fell from power and the Third Republic was proclaimed that Hugo finally returned to his homeland in 1870, where he was promptly elected to the National Assembly and the Senate.

He was in Paris during the siege by the Prussian army in 1870, famously eating animals given to him by the Paris zoo. As the siege continued, and food became ever more scarce, he wrote in his diary that he was reduced to "eating the unknown."

Because of his concern for the rights of artists and copyright, he was a founding member of the Association Littéraire et Artistique Internationale, which led to the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. However, in Pauvert's published archives, he states strongly that "any work of art has two authors : the people who confusely feels something, a creator who translates these feelings, and the people again who consecrates his vision of that feeling. When one of the authors dies, the rights should totally be granted back to the other, the people".

Religious views

Hugo's religious views changed radically over the course of his life. In his youth, he identified himself as a Catholic and professed respect for Church hierarchy and authority. From there he became a non-practicing Catholic, and increasingly expressed anti-Catholic and anti-clerical views. He frequented Spiritism during his exile (where he participated also in many séances conducted by Madame Delphine de Girardin), and in later years settled into a Rationalist Deism similar to that espoused by Voltaire. A census-taker asked Hugo in 1872 if he was a Catholic, and he replied, "No. A Freethinker".

After that point, Hugo never lost his antipathy towards the Catholic Church, due largely to what he saw as the Church's indifference to the plight of the working class under the oppression of the monarchy; and perhaps also due to the frequency with which Hugo's work appeared on the Church's Index Librorum Prohibitorum (Hugo counted 740 attacks on ''Les Misérables'' in the Catholic press). On the deaths of his sons Charles and François-Victor, he insisted that they be buried without a crucifix or priest, and in his will made the same stipulation about his own death and funeral. However, although Hugo believed Catholic dogma to be outdated and dying, he never directly attacked the actual doctrines of the Church.

Hugo's Rationalism can be found in poems such as ''Torquemada'' (1869, about religious fanaticism), ''The Pope'' (1878, anti-clerical), ''Religions and Religion'' (1880, denying the usefulness of churches) and, published posthumously, ''The End of Satan'' and ''God'' (1886 and 1891 respectively, in which he represents Christianity as a griffin and Rationalism as an angel). "Religions pass away, but God remains", Hugo declared. Christianity would eventually disappear, he predicted, but people would still believe in "God, Soul, and the Power."

Victor Hugo and music

Although Hugo's many talents did not include exceptional musical ability, he nevertheless had a great impact on the music world through the inspiration that his works provided for composers of the 19th and 20th century. Hugo himself particularly enjoyed the music of Gluck and Weber and greatly admired Beethoven, and rather unusually for his time, he also appreciated works by composers from earlier centuries such as Palestrina and Monteverdi. Two famous musicians of the 19th century were friends of Hugo: Berlioz and Liszt. The latter played Beethoven in Hugo's home, and Hugo joked in a letter to a friend that thanks to Liszt's piano lessons, he learned how to play a favourite song on the piano – even though only with one finger! Hugo also worked with composer Louise Bertin, writing the libretto for her 1836 opera ''La Esmeralda'' which was based on the character in ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame''. Although for various reasons the opera closed soon after its fifth performance and is little known today, it has been recently enjoying a revival, both in a piano/song concert version by Liszt at the Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux 2007 and in a full orchestral version presented in July 2008 at Le Festival de Radio France et Montpellier Languedoc-Roussillon.

Well over one thousand musical compositions have been inspired by Hugo's works from the 19th century until the present day. In particular, Hugo's plays, in which he rejected the rules of classical theatre in favour of romantic drama, attracted the interest of many composers who adapted them into operas. More than one hundred operas are based on Hugo's works and among them are Donizetti's ''Lucrezia Borgia'' (1833), Verdi's ''Rigoletto'' (1851) and Ernani (1844), and Ponchielli's ''La Gioconda'' (1876). Hugo's novels as well as his plays have been a great source of inspiration for musicians, stirring them to create not only opera and ballet but musical theatre such as Notre-Dame de Paris and the ever-popular Les Misérables, London West End's longest running musical. Additionally, Hugo's beautiful poems have attracted an exceptional amount of interest from musicians, and numerous melodies have been based on his poetry by composers such as Berlioz, Bizet, Fauré, Franck, Lalo, Liszt, Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Rachmaninov and Wagner.

Today, Hugo's work continues to stimulate musicians to create new compositions. For example, Hugo's novel against capital punishment, The Last Day of a Condemned Man, has recently been adapted into an opera by David Alagna (libretto by Frédérico Alagna). Their brother, tenor Roberto Alagna, performed in the opera's premiere in Paris in the summer of 2007 and again in February 2008 in Valencia with Erwin Schrott as part of the Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux 2008. In Guernsey, every two years the Victor Hugo International Music Festival attracts a wide range of musicians and the premiere of songs specially commissioned from such composers as Guillaume Connesson, Richard Dubugnon, Olivier Kaspar and Thierry Escaich and based on Hugo's poetry.

Declining years and death

When Hugo returned to Paris in 1870, the country hailed him as a national hero. Despite his popularity Hugo lost his bid for reelection to the National Assembly in 1872. Within a brief period, he suffered a mild stroke, his daughter Adèle's internment in an insane asylum, and the death of his two sons. (Adèle's biography inspired the movie ''The Story of Adele H.'') His wife Adèle had died in 1868. His faithful mistress, Juliette Drouet, died in 1883, only two years before his own death. Despite his personal loss, Hugo remained committed to the cause of political change. On 30 January 1876 Hugo was elected to the newly created Senate. The last phase of his political career is considered a failure. Hugo took on the role of a maverick and got little done in the Senate.

In February 1881 Hugo celebrated his 79th birthday. To honor the fact that he was entering his eightieth year, one of the greatest tributes to a living writer was held. The celebrations began on the 25th when Hugo was presented with a Sèvres vase, the traditional gift for sovereigns. On the 27th one of the largest parades in French history was held. Marchers stretched from Avenue d'Eylau, down the Champs-Élysées, and all the way to the center of Paris. The paraders marched for six hours to pass Hugo as he sat in the window at his house. Every inch and detail of the event was for Hugo; the official guides even wore cornflowers as an allusion to Fantine's song in ''Les Misérables.''

Victor Hugo's death on 22 May 1885, at the age of 83, generated intense national mourning. He was not only revered as a towering figure in literature, he was a statesman who shaped the Third Republic and democracy in France. More than two million people joined his funeral procession in Paris from the Arc de Triomphe to the Panthéon, where he was buried. He shares a crypt within the Panthéon with Alexandre Dumas and Émile Zola. Most large French towns and cities have a street named for him. The avenue where he died, in Paris, now bears his name.

His last will

He left a set of five sentences as his last will to be officially published :

« Je donne cinquante mille francs aux pauvres. Je veux être enterré dans leur corbillard.

Je refuse l'oraison de toutes les Eglises. Je demande une prière à toutes les âmes.

Je crois en Dieu. »

(I leave 50 000 francs to the poor. I want to be buried in their hearse.

I refuse [funeral] orations of all churches. I beg a prayer to all souls.

I believe in God.)

Drawings

Victor Hugo was a prolific visual artist, producing more than 4,000 drawings in his lifetime. Originally pursued as a casual hobby, drawing became more important to Hugo shortly before his exile, when he made the decision to stop writing in order to devote himself to politics. Drawing became his exclusive creative outlet during the period 1848–1851.

Hugo worked only on paper, and on a small scale; usually in dark brown or black pen-and-ink wash, sometimes with touches of white, and rarely with color. The surviving drawings are surprisingly accomplished and "modern" in their style and execution, foreshadowing the experimental techniques of Surrealism and Abstract Expressionism.

He would not hesitate to use his children's stencils, ink blots, puddles and stains, lace impressions, "pliage" or folding (i.e. Rorschach blots), "grattage" or rubbing, often using the charcoal from match sticks or his fingers instead of pen or brush. Sometimes he would even toss in coffee or soot to get the effects he wanted. It is reported that Hugo often drew with his left hand or without looking at the page, or during Spiritualist séances, in order to access his unconscious mind, a concept only later popularized by Sigmund Freud.

Hugo kept his artwork out of the public eye, fearing it would overshadow his literary work. However, he enjoyed sharing his drawings with his family and friends, often in the form of ornately handmade calling cards, many of which were given as gifts to visitors when he was in political exile. Some of his work was shown to, and appreciated by, contemporary artists such as Van Gogh and Delacroix; the latter expressed the opinion that if Hugo had decided to become a painter instead of a writer, he would have outshone the artists of their century.

Gallery:

Memorials

The people of Guernsey erected a statue in Candie Gardens (St. Peter Port) to commemorate his stay in the islands. The City of Paris has preserved his residences Hauteville House, Guernsey and 6, Place des Vosges, Paris as museums. The house where he stayed in Vianden, Luxembourg, in 1871 has also become a commemorative museum.

Hugo is venerated as a saint in the Vietnamese religion of Cao Dai.

The Avenue Victor-Hugo in the XVIème arrondissement of Paris bears Hugo's name, and links the Place de l'Étoile to the vicinity of the Bois de Boulogne by way of the Place Victor-Hugo. This square is served by a Paris Métro stop also named in his honor. A number of streets and avenues throughout France are likewise named after him. The school Lycée Victor Hugo was founded in his town of birth, Besançon in France. Avenue Victor-Hugo, located in Shawinigan, Quebec, Canada, was named to honor him.

In the city of Avellino, Italy, Victor Hugo lived briefly stayed in what is now known as Il Palazzo Culturale, when reuniting with his father, Leopold Sigisbert Hugo, in 1808. Victor would later write about his brief stay here quoting "C’était un palais de marbre...".

In Havana, Cuba there is a park named after him.

Works

Published during Hugo's lifetime

''Cromwell'' preface only (1819)

''Odes et poésies diverses'' (1822)

''Odes (Hugo)'' (1823)

''Han d'Islande'' (1823) (''Hans of Iceland'')

''Nouvelles Odes'' (1824)

''Bug-Jargal'' (1826)

''Nils Gunnar Lie's history'' (1826)

''Odes et Ballades'' (1826)

''Cromwell'' (1827)

''Les Orientales'' (1829)

''Le Dernier jour d'un condamné'' (1829) (''The Last Day of a Condemned Man'')

''Hernani'' (1830)

''Notre-Dame de Paris'' (1831), (''The Hunchback of Notre-Dame'')

''Marion Delorme'' (1831)

''Les Feuilles d'automne'' (1831)

''Le roi s'amuse'' (1832)

''Lucrèce Borgia'' (1833) (''Lucretia Borgia'')

''Marie Tudor'' (1833)

''Littérature et philosophie mêlées'' (1834)

''Claude Gueux'' (1834)

''Angelo, tyran de padoue'' (1835)

''Les Chants du crépuscule'' (1835)

''La Esmeralda (only libretto of an opera written by Victor Hugo himself)'' (1836)

''Les Voix intérieures'' (1837)

''Ruy Blas'' (1838)

''Les Rayons et les ombres'' (1840)

''Le Rhin'' (1842)

''Les Burgraves'' (1843)

''Napoléon le Petit'' (1852)

''Les Châtiments'' (1853)

''Les Contemplations'' (1856)

''Les TRYNE'' (1856)

''La Légende des siècles'' (1859)

''Les Misérables'' (1862)

''William Shakespeare'' (1864)

''Les Chansons des rues et des bois'' (1865)

''Les Travailleurs de la Mer'' (1866), (''Toilers of the Sea'')

''La voix de Guernsey'' (1867)

''L'Homme qui rit'' (1869), (''The Man Who Laughs'')

''L'Année terrible'' (1872)

''Quatrevingt-treize'' (''Ninety-Three'') (1874)

''Mes Fils'' (1874)

''Actes et paroles – Avant l'exil'' (1875)

''Actes et paroles – Pendant l'exil'' (1875)

''Actes et paroles – Depuis l'exil'' (1876)

''La Légende des Siècles 2e série'' (1877)

''L'Art d'être grand-père'' (1877)

''Histoire d'un crime'' 1re partie (1877)

''Histoire d'un crime'' 2e partie (1878)

''Le Pape'' (1878)

''La pitié suprême'' (1879)

''Religions et religion'' (1880)

''L'Âne'' (1880)

''Les Quatres vents de l'esprit'' (1881)

''Torquemada'' (1882)

''La Légende des siècles'' Tome III (1883)

''L'Archipel de la Manche'' (1883)

Poems of Victor Hugo

Published posthumously

''Théâtre en liberté'' (1886)

''La Fin de Satan'' (1886)

''Choses vues'' (1887)

''Toute la lyre'' (1888)

''Amy Robsart'' (1889)

''Les Jumeaux'' (1889)

''Actes et Paroles'' Depuis l'exil, 1876–1885 (1889)

''Alpes et Pyrénées'' (1890)

''Dieu'' (1891)

''France et Belgique'' (1892)

''Toute la lyre – dernière série'' (1893)

''Les fromages'' (1895)

''Correspondences – Tome I'' (1896)

''Correspondences – Tome II'' (1898)

''Les années funestes'' (1898)

''Choses vues – nouvelle série'' (1900)

''Post-scriptum de ma vie'' (1901)

''Dernière Gerbe'' (1902)

''Mille francs de récompense'' (1934)

''Océan. Tas de pierres'' (1942)

''L'Intervention'' (1951)

''Conversations with Eternity'' (1998)

Online texts

Works by Victor Hugo at Internet Archive

Works by Victor Hugo at The Online Books Page

Political speeches by Victor Hugo: Victor Hugo, My Revenge is Fraternity!

Selected Poetry

Biography and speech from 1851

Obituary in ''The Times''

References

Online references

Afran, Charles (1997). “Victor Hugo: French Dramatist”. Website: Discover France. (Originally published in ''Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia'', 1997, v.9.0.1.) Retrieved November 2005.

Bates, Alfred (1906). “Victor Hugo”. Website: Theatre History. (Originally published in ''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'', vol. 9. ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 11–13.) Retrieved November 2005.

Bates, Alfred (1906). “Hernani”. Website: Theatre History. (Originally published in ''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'', vol. 9. ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 20–23.) Retrieved November 2005.

Bates, Alfred (1906). “Hugo’s Cromwell”. Website: Theatre History. (Originally published in ''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'', vol. 9. ed. Alfred Bates. London: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 18–19.) Retrieved November 2005.

Bittleston, Misha (uncited date). "Drawings of Victor Hugo". Website: Misha Bittleston. Retrieved November 2005.

Burnham, I.G. (1896). “Amy Robsart”. Website: Theatre History. (Originally published in ''Victor Hugo: Dramas''. Philadelphia: The Rittenhouse Press, 1896. pp. 203–6, 401–2.) Retrieved November 2005.

Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Edition (2001–05). “Hugo, Victor Marie, Vicomte”. Website: Bartleby, Great Books Online. Retrieved November 2005. Retrieved November 2005.

Haine, W. Scott (1997). “Victor Hugo”. Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions. Website: Ohio University. Retrieved November 2005.

Illi, Peter (2001–2004). “Victor Hugo: Plays”. Website: The Victor Hugo Website. Retrieved November 2005.

Karlins, N.F. (1998). "Octopus With the Initials V.H." Website: ArtNet. Retrieved November 2005.

Liukkonen, Petri (2000). “Victor Hugo (1802–1885)”. Books and Writers. Website: Pegasos: A Literature Related Resource Site. Retrieved November 2005.

Meyer, Ronald Bruce (2004). “Victor Hugo”. Website: Ronald Bruce Meyer. Retrieved November 2005.

Portasio, Manoel (2009). “Victor Hugo e o Espiritismo”. Website: Sir William Crookes Spiritist Society. (Portuguese) Retrieved August 2010.

Robb, Graham (1997). “A Sabre in the Night”. Website: New York Times (Books). (Excerpt from Graham, Robb (1997). ''Victor Hugo: A Biography''. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.) Retrieved November 2005.

Roche, Isabel (2005). “Victor Hugo: Biography”. Meet the Writers. Website: Barnes & Noble. (From the Barnes & Noble Classics edition of ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'', 2005.) Retrieved November 2005.

Schneider, Maria do Carmo M (2010). “Victor Hugo, gênio sem fronteiras”. Website: MiniWeb Educacao. (Portuguese) Retrieved August 2010.

Uncited Author. “Victor Hugo”. Website: Spartacus Educational. Retrieved November 2005.

Uncited Author. “Timeline of Victor Hugo”. Website: BBC. Retrieved November 2005.

Uncited Author. (2000–2005). “Victor Hugo”. Website: The Literature Network. Retrieved November 2005.

Uncited Author. "Hugo Caricature". Website: Présence de la Littérature a l'école. Retrieved November 2005.

Further reading

Barbou, Alfred (1882). ''Victor Hugo and His Times''. University Press of the Pacific: 2001 paper back edition. Book sources

Barnett, Marva A., ed. (2009). ''Victor Hugo on Things That Matter: A Reader''. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. Book sources

Brombert, Victor H. (1984). ''Victor Hugo and the Visionary Novel''. Boston: Harvard University Press. Book sources

Davidson, A.F. (1912). ''Victor Hugo: His Life and Work''. University Press of the Pacific: 2003 paperback edition. Book sources

Dow, Leslie Smith (1993). ''Adele Hugo: La Miserable''. Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions. Book sources

Falkayn, David (2001). ''Guide to the Life, Times, and Works of Victor Hugo''. University Press of the Pacific. Book sources

Feller, Martin, ''Der Dichter in der Politik. Victor Hugo und der deutsch-französische Krieg von 1870/71. Untersuchungen zum französischen Deutschlandbild und zu Hugos Rezeption in Deutschland.'' Doctoral Dissertation, Marburg 1988.

Frey, John Andrew (1999). ''A Victor Hugo Encyclopedia''. Greenwood Press. Book sources

Grant, Elliot (1946). ''The Career of Victor Hugo''. Harvard University Press. Out of print.

Halsall, A.W. et al. (1998). ''Victor Hugo and the Romantic Drama''. University of Toronto Press.Book sources

Hart, Simon Allen (2004). ''Lady in the Shadows: The Life and Times of Julie Drouet, Mistress, Companion and Muse to Victor Hugo.'' Publish American. Book sources

Houston, John Porter (1975). ''Victor Hugo''. New York: Twayne Publishers. Book sources

Hovasse, Jean-Marc (2001), ''Victor Hugo: Avant l'exil''. Paris: Fayard. Book sources

Hovasse, Jean-Marc (2008), ''Victor Hugo: Pendant l'exil I''. Paris: Fayard. Book sources

Ireson, J.C. (1997). ''Victor Hugo: A Companion to His Poetry''. Clarendon Press. Book sources

Laster, Arnaud (2002). ''Hugo à l'Opéra''. Paris: L'Avant-Scène Opéra, no. 208.

Maurois, Andre (1956). ''Olympio: The Life of Victor Hugo''. New York: Harper & Brothers.

Maurois, Andre (1966). ''Victor Hugo and His World''. London: Thames and Hudson. Out of print.

Pouchain, Gérard and Robert Sabourin (1992). ''Juliette Drouet, ou, La dépaysée''. Paris: Fayard. Book sources

Robb, Graham (1997). ''Victor Hugo: A Biography''. W.W. Norton & Company: 1999 paperback edition. Book sources, (description/reviews at wwnorton.com)

Tonazzi, Pascal (2007) ''Florilège de Notre-Dame de Paris (anthologie)'' Paris, Editions Arléa ISBN 2-86959-795-9

External links

France of Victor Hugo

Guernsey’s Official Victor Hugo Website

Guernsey’s Victor Hugo International Music Festival

Victor Hugo Central

Victor Hugo's works: text, concordances and frequency lists

1867 Caricature of Victor Hugo by André Gill

Victor Hugo le dessinateur

Translation of Victor Hugo note found in "Hunchback of Notre Dame," french edition

English translation of Hugo's ''At Dawn Tomorrow'' (''Demain, dès l'aube'')

Another English translation of ''Demain, dès l'aube''

English translation of Hugo's ''A Villequier''

English translation of Hugo's ''Oh ! je fus comme fou dans le premier moment'' ('Oh! I was like a crazy man in the first moment') on the death of his daughter Léopoldine

Official site of the Société des Amis de Victor Hugo

Official site of the Festival international Victor Hugo et Égaux

Translation of The legend of Victor Hugo by Paul Lafargue

Category:1802 births Category:1885 deaths Category:19th-century French writers Category:19th-century theatre Category:Burials at the Panthéon Category:Cao Dai saints Category:Deists Category:French anti–death penalty activists Category:French dramatists and playwrights Category:French fantasy writers Category:French novelists Category:French poets Category:French-language poets Category:Guernsey writers Category:Jersey writers Category:Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni Category:Members of the Académie française Category:Officiers of the Légion d'honneur Category:People from Besançon Category:Philhellenes Category:Romantic poets Category:Rosicrucians Category:Spiritualists Category:University of Paris alumni Category:Western mystics Category:Writers who illustrated their own writing

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:''This article is about human hair. For other uses, see Longhair (disambiguation) or Hair'' Long hair is a hairstyle. Exactly what constitutes long hair can change from culture to culture, or even within cultures. For example, a woman with chin-length hair in some cultures may be said to have short hair, while a man with the same length of hair in some of the same cultures would be said to have long hair.

Scientists view long hair as playing a large part in natural selection among many species, since long, thick and healthy hair or fur is frequently a sign of fertility and youth. As hair grows slowly, long hair reveals several years of a person's health status and reproductive fitness. Hair length is significantly correlated with female attractiveness, as rated by men as well as women. Hair length and quality can act as a cue to especially a woman's youth and health, signifying reproductive potential. The prevalence of trichophilia (hair partialism or fetischism) is 7% in the population, and very long hair is a common subject of devotion in this group.

In the context of cultural and social norms, hair can signal gender differences as well as ideological differences. Opposite sexes and opposite ideologies tend to have opposite styles of hair, for example hair lengths.

Ways of life often viewed as more rigid, such as soldiers and religious cultures, often have explicit rules regarding hair length. For example, Buddhist monks shave their heads as part of their order of worship. Even outside religious structures, cultures often associate male long hair with ways of life outside of what is culturally accepted. Subservient cultures, for example, are sometimes detected by their rulers through hair length, as was the case with the Irish under English rule and the Moors under Spanish rule in Medieval Spain.

Again, though, there are exceptions to these rules, notably among the long-haired and religiously devoted Nazarites of the Hebrew Bible (Samson being a famous example) and among the Sikhs.

East Asian cultures have traditionally seen long, unkempt hair in a woman as a sign of sexual intent or a recent sexual encounter, as usually their hair is tied up in styles such as the ponytail, plait, or any bun.

Transferred meaning

The traditional connotation of "long hair" in English meant, roughly, someone artistically knowledgeable or wise, an aesthete. As a descriptive term, it has been applied to Merovingians and classical music enthusiasts, as well as hippies and aesthetes.

Hair lengths

{| | | | | | | |} Hair length is measured (in centimeters or inches) from the line of the scalp on the forehead up over the highest point of the skull to its termination. In cosmetology, hair lengths longer than what is usually considered short are categorized according to the following:

''Chin level'' is considered long for men in some cultures, but usually not for women.

''Shoulder-length'' is hair reaching the shoulders; hair usually takes about 3 years to reach this point.

''Mid-back level'' is hair falling to the widest part of the chest.

''Waist-length'' hair falls to the smallest part of one's waist; for most people approximately 80–90 cm (32–36 inches) long, and taking about 7 years to grow, including occasional trims.

''Hip-length'' hair stretches to the hip.

''Classic length'' extends to almost upper thigh-length, where the legs meet the buttocks.

''Thigh-length'' reaches to the thigh.

''Knee-length'' reaches to the knee.

''Ankle/floor length'' comes to the ankle or beyond.

Maximum hair length

The maximum hair length that is possible to reach is about 15 cm for infants (below the age of 1), about 60 cm for children (below the age of 13), and generally 100 cm for adults. Documentation for decrease of the maximum length with age cannot be found in the literature. Some individuals can reach excessive lengths. Lengths greater than 150 cm are frequently observed in long hair contests. Xie Qiuping had the longest documented hair in the world, measuring 5.627 m (18 ft 5.54 in) in May 2004.

The maximum terminal hair length depends on the length of the anagen (period of hair growth) for the individual. Waist-length hair or longer is only possible to reach for people with long anagen. The anagen lasts between 2 and 7 years, for some individuals even longer, and follows by shorter catagen (transition) and telogen (resting) periods. Between 85% and 90% of the hair strains are in anagen.

Psychological significance

Anthropologists speculate that the functional significance of long head hair may be adornment, a by-product of secondary natural selection once other androgenic/somatic hair (body hair) had largely been lost. Another possibility is that long head hair is a result of Fisherian runaway sexual selection, where long lustrous hair is a visible marker for a healthy individual. For some groups or individuals, however, short hair is the selected trait.

By seven to nine months, infants can tell the sexes apart based on hair length, voice pitch and faces.

Cultural history

Hair is one of the most important ways humans have of presenting themselves, being one of the parts of their body which is easiest to manipulate. Also, having short, cut hair (or a shaven head) is often viewed as being under society's control, such as while in prison or as punishment for a crime, while males having long hair signifies being outside of the mainstream.

In Jewish and Christian scriptures

In the Old Testament, the Nazirites would go for long periods of time without cutting their hair to show devotion to God. Samson is one example; his strength depended upon his refraining from cutting his hair. The New Testament says, "Doth not even nature itself teach you, that, if a man have long hair, it is a shame unto him? But if a woman has long hair, it is a glory to her: for her hair is given her for a covering," something followed by women in some apostolic pentecostal denomitations in some countries as an act of holiness.

Western culture

Classical period

In ancient Greece, long male hair was a symbol of wealth and power, while a shaven head was appropriate for a slave. The ancient Greeks had several Gods and heroes who wore their hair long, including Zeus, Achilles, Apollo, and Poseidon. Greek soldiers are said to have worn their hair long in battle. Such warriors considered it a sign of aristocracy and are said to have combed it openly in order to show off. Also, in order to keep enemies from getting a hold of it in battle, they were known to cut the front short, but leave it long in the back, where it was more out of reach. A widely held alternative interpretation of the conventional belief that they cut it short in the front in order to keep their enemies from getting a hold of it during battle is that, they did not in fact cut it in the front, but rather tied it back in a style known as a pony tail in order to keep it out of their enemies' reach. The pony tail method allowed warriors, who often traveled to battle with a minimal amount of equipment in order to avoid excessively heavy loads over long marches, to keep their hair manageable with a small piece of string to hold their pony tail in place and a knife to cut the back to length with one simple slice. Around the sixth century, however, the Greek men shifted to shorter hairstyles, with the exception of the Spartans. Women in the culture remained with the longer style, which for them showed freedom, health, and wealth, as well as good behavior. In men, it was considered a sign of false pride by this time. Women in Roman times valued long hair, usually with a center part. Men's hair was usually shorter than women's, (but in the early times, the custom was quite the same as in Greece) although other cultures of the time, such as Greeks in the east, considered long hair to be typical of philosophers, who were thought to be too engrossed in learning to bother with hair. Strictly in the province of Rome, however the shorter hairstyle was especially popular. When Julius Caesar conquered the Gauls, who favored long hair, he ordered it to be cut short.

Up to the seventeenth century

In the European middle ages, shorter hair often signified servitude and peasantry, while long hair was often attributed to freemen, such as the Germanic Goths and Merovingians. In Ireland, English colonists who wore their hair long in the back were considered to be rejecting their role as English subjects and giving in to the Irish life. Irishmen, in turn, scolded others of their race who moved into English culture by cutting their hair. Thus, hair length was one of the most common ways of judging a true Englishman in this period. Muslims in Christian areas were ordered to keep their hair short and parted, as their longer style was considered rebellious and barbaric. thumb|right|200px|Empress Elisabeth of Austria wearing thigh-length hair in 1865. A long hair fad was widespread among English and French men in the 11th and 12th centuries, though otherwise it was considered, mostly because of endorsement of the Roman Catholic Church, proper for men to have shorter, and women, longer hair. The fad was largely brought about by monarchs who rejected the shorter hairstyle, causing the people to follow. Wulfstan, a religious leader, worried that those with longer hair would fight like women, and be unable to protect England from foreign invasion. (This idea can be found in later military leaders as well, such as those of the American Confederacy.) Knights and rulers would also sometimes cut or pull out their hair in order to show penitence and mourning, and a squire's hair was generally shorter than a knight's. Married women who let their hair flow out were frowned upon, as this was normally reserved for the unwed, although they were allowed to let it out in mourning, to show their distressed state. Through these centuries it was expected of Eastern Christians to wear long hair as well as long beards, which was especially expected from clergy and monks.

In England, during the English Civil War times of 1642 to 1651, male hair length was emblematic of the disputes between Cavaliers and Roundheads (Puritans). Cavaliers wore longer hair, and were less religious minded, thought of by the Roundheads as lecherous. The more devout Roundheads had short hair, although there were exceptions.

Recent meanings

Before World War One men generally had longer hair and beards. However, short hair on men has often been enforced as a mean of control, in police, military and other forces that require obedience and discipline. Slaves and defeated armies were often required to shave their heads. The trench warfare in 1914 to 1918 exposed men to flea and lice infestations, which prompted the order to cut short hair, establishing a norm that has persisted.

Beat poets during the 1950s wore longer hairstyles, as did many of the urban gay culture, although long hair was far from popular. However, the 1960s introduced The Beatles, who started a widespread longer hair fad. The social revolution of the 1960s led to a renaissance of unchecked hair growth, and long hair, especially on men, was worn as a political or countercultural symbol or protest. This cultural symbol extended to several Western countries in the Americas, Western Europe, South Africa, and Australia. Specific long hairstyles such as dreadlocks have been part of counterculture movements seeking to define other alternative cultures and lifestyles since this time. Longer hair in general remained popular among the youth rebellion throughout the liberal decade of the 1960s. Homosexual men, many of whom had adopted a long hairstyle in the early 1950s, have largely abandoned this trend. Some people saw the long hair fad as a threat to gender identity, cultural, and religious norms as it grew with the spread of the hippie movement in the 1960s. Notably, some country-and-western performers during this period (and many fans) also sported longer hair.

In the 1970s, the popularity of Jamaica's reggae music and musician Bob Marley prompted interest in dreadlocks internationally. The anti-establishment philosophy of Rastafari, echoed in much of the reggae of the time, resonated with left-leaning youth of all ethnicities — especially and primarily among African Americans and other Blacks, but among counterculture whites as well. The Eastern Christians are encouraged to wear long hair with long beard. In the 1980s the view of long hair as a solitary signifier of political or counter-cultural identity was countered and parodied in films such as Rambo and many other militaristic heroes of media which challenged then-contemporary views of what was masculine. Today, longer hairstyles remain popular among rock enthusiasts. Long hair may be grown for the purpose of being donated to an organization, such as Locks of Love, for hairpieces to help those who could not have hair otherwise, such as those who are diagnosed with alopecia areata.

Women

Women often have a stronger inclination towards long hair than men do. Younger women tend to have longer hair than older women. Hair length and quality can act as a cue to a woman's youth and health, signifying reproductive potential. Growing and wearing long hair was almost universal among women in the western world until World War One. Some feminists have declared long hair as "irrefutably feminine," while others argue for short hair.

Sikhism

The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh at the Baisakhi Amrit Sanchar in 1699 to wear long uncut hair called Kesh at all times. This was one of the 'five requisites of faith', collectively called Kakars that form the external visible identifiers to clearly affirm a Sikh's commitment and dedication to the order (Hukam) of the tenth master and made one a member of the Khalsa. The Khalsa is the "Saint-Soldier" of Guru Gobind Singh who stated the following: "He does not recognize anyone else except One Lord, not even the bestowal of charities, performance of merciful acts, austerities and restraint on pilgrim-stations; the perfect light of the Lord illuminates his heart, then consider him as the immaculate Khalsa." (Guru Gobind Singh in the Dasam Granth page 1350)

The Kesh or unshorn long hair is an indispensable part of the human body as created by Vaheguru that is the mainstay of the 'Jivan Jaach' and the Rehni that was prescribed by Guru Gobind Singh Sahib by which a Sikh is clearly and quickly identified, Kesh. The kanga, another requisite of faith is usually tucked behind the "Rishi Knot" and tied under the turban. The uncut long head hair and the beard in the case of men forms the main kakar for the Sikhs.

KESADHARI, a term defining a Sikh as one who carries on his head the full growth of his kes (hair) which he never trims or cuts for any reason. Anyone, Sikh or non-Sikh, may keep the hair unshorn, but for the Sikh kes, unshorn hair, is an requisite of faith and an inviolable vow. The Sikh Rahit Maryada published by the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, statutory body for the control and management of Sikh shrines and by extension for laying down rules about Sikh beliefs and practices, issued in 1945, after long and minute deliberations among Sikh scholars and theologians, defines a Sikh thus: Every Sikh who has been admitted to the rites of amrit, i.e. who has been initiated as a Sikh, must allow his hair to grow to its full length. This also applies to those born of Sikh families but [who] have not yet received the rites of amrit of the tenth master, Guru Gobind Singh. ".

Islam

In the Muslim world, it seems the trend of hair styles is now favouring short over long in men. In the past, Bedouin Muslims often wore their hair in long braids, but western influences brought on the view that such styles were feminine in nature. Now, Bedouins are much less likely to have long hair. Islamic countries in North Africa such as Egypt view long hair in men as homosexual and in one case the Egyptian police viewed it as satanic and a sign of an infidel, although Western rock music, especially heavy metal, may have contributed to this view.

Muslims regard Prophet Muhammad as the best example to live by, and try to emulate him whenever possible. The Islamic Prophet Muhammad reportedly in Sahih Muslim had hair that "hung over his shoulders and earlobes". Sahih Bukhari, regarded the most authentic of hadith, also supports this. The Prophet Muhammad has also described Jesus as "having long hair reaching his ear lobes."

With regards to women, neither Qur'an nor Sunnah explicitly state that women cannot cut their hair. Hadith does mention that women should not imitate men, and vice versa, and hence many scholars on this assumption, decree that women should let their hair grow longer than the hair of the Prophet, reaching beyond their shoulders, as hadith mentions that the Prophet had his hair between his shoulder and his earlobes. (He described Jesus's hair, which hung to his earlobes, as long.)

However culturally, some Muslims are opposed to men having long hair as it is also important in Islam to have clear differences (in appearance) between sexes. And generally these cultures encourage women to have long hair and men to have short hair. The Taliban viewed long hair for men as a western influence, and punished it by arrest and forced haircuts, albeit this would be a direct contradiction of the sunnah of the Prophet. Similar measures have been taken by Islamists in Iraq. In spite of this, several Taleban affiliated members of the Mehsud clan are recognisable by their long hair. The Saudi Islamist fighter Amir Khattab was also notable for his long hair. Dervishes of some Sufi orders, such as the Kasnazani, often have long hair and whirl it around during rituals.

Native Americans

Many Native American men wore long hair before the arrival of western influences on their culture. (In Cherokee legends, for example, males said to be handsome were often described as having "long hair almost to the ground" or similar formulas.). Both men and women of these cultures have frequently struggled to maintain their tradition, but have faced heavy opposition. Many consider it a sign of giving in to western influences to have their hair cut. Early American settlers saw long-haired, native men as rebelling against their civilized society. Mountain men and trappers who adopted the customs were also considered amoral, and often identified by their long hair. Since the cultural movements of the sixties and seventies, however, Native Americans have felt less pressure to have short hair, as different movements have defended their cultural rights. For example, several states have loosened prison regulations, allowing Native Americans to wear long hair during incarceration, along with other cultural allowances. There has been resistance to these changes, however, as long hair is sometimes used to hide drugs, as well as to identify with a gang.

Sub-Saharan Africans

In West African cultures, women with long hair were highly valued. Long, thick hair was seen as a sign of health, strength, and capability to bear many children. In keeping with this general theme, women who were too young for marriage would shave a portion of their heads to signal so. This tradition, however, did not extend to every African tribe, as several valued shorter hair.

African Americans

When black slaves were freed in the Americas, they struggled to reach the social status of whites. Many former slaves tried to conform their hairstyles as part of this struggle. African-American women felt pressured to make their hair straight like white women, rather than keeping the shorter, curlier style they had known. However, during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s, African-Americans such as Malcolm X advocated hairstyles such as afros and dreadlocks. Social pressures at the time were heavily influencing African-American females to have long, straight hair, like many Caucasians did. Recently, scholars have observed continued pressure on blacks to have long, straight hair. Amelian Jones believes that dolls marketed towards children add to this pressure, citing as an example a new black Barbie with long hair. Jones believes that African-American females should maintain their "African" cultural norms without feeling pressured to "tame" their hair.

Asia

Historically, East Asian cultures viewed long hair as a sign of youth and aesthetic beauty. Long hair is associated with private life and sexuality. East Asian cultures see long, unkempt hair in a woman as a sign of sexual intent or a recent sexual encounter, as usually their hair is tied up. Lay Buddhists have long hair, while Buddhist monks have shaved heads. For Sikhs, Kesh is the practice of allowing one's hair to grow naturally as a symbol of devotion to God and lack of worldliness. In Jewish and other cultures, shortening hair signifies mourning and sadness.

Around the seventeenth century, the Manchu people forced all men in China to adopt a hairstyle called a queue, which was basically a long braid down the back with the hair on the front part of the head shaved. This style lasted well into the nineteenth century, when the Chinese began immigrating to America. Americans at first judged them to be poor workers because their long hair brought an association with women. Both Islamic and Christian missionaries to the Chinese were strong advocates of shorter hair for their converts, but this was a small group. Around the Destruction of Four Olds period in 1964, almost anything seen as part of Traditional Chinese culture would lead to problems with the Communist Red Guards. Items that attracted dangerous attention if caught in the public included jewelry and long hair. These things were regarded as symbols of bourgeois lifestyle, that represented wealth. People had to avoid them or suffer serious consequences such as tortures and beatings by the guards. More recently, long hair was ridiculed in China from October 1983 to February 1984, as part of the Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign. Li Yang, an unorthodox Chinese English teacher who brands the popular Crazy English, claims the following on his website:

What [America, England and Japan] want most is for China’s youth to have long hair, wear bizarre clothes, drink soda, listen to Western music, have no fighting spirit, love pleasure and comfort!

In Southeast Asia and Indonesia, male long hair was valued in until the seventeenth century, when the area adopted outside influences including Islam and Christianity. Invading cultures enforced shorter hairstyles on men as a sign of servitude, as well. They were also confused at the short hairstyles among women in certain areas, such as Thailand, and struggled to explain why women in the area had such short hair. They came up with several mythical stories, one of which involved a king who found a long hair in his rice and, in a rage, demanded that all women keep their hair short.

In rural areas in certain Asian countries, for example India, girls still usually let their hair grow long, and knee-length hair is not unusual.

See also

Grooming

Haircut

Hair extensions

Hairstick

Lady Godiva

Long hair fetishism, a form of ''Trichophilia''

Rapunzel

Images

Female long hair in art (Gallery at Wikimedia commons)

Female long hair photos (Gallery at Wikimedia commons)

Male long hair in art (Gallery at Wikimedia commons)

Male long hair photos (Gallery at Wikimedia commons)

References

Category:Hairstyles Category:Pejorative terms for people Category:Heavy metal fashion

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